Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader Essa

The life of Amir Abd el-Kader was set apart by a reiteration of troublesome decisions†inquiries of whether to react to brutality and mistreatment emphatically or pitifully, to stay immovable in counter or to give up and, in doing as such, stop superfluous passing. Upon closer examination, the difficulties and choices which defied the Amir are not all that definitely unique in relation to increasingly present day worries of universal mediation or political change. In perusing of the Amir’s life and before this, the Ghost Dance of the Lakota individuals and the improvement of the Khalsa in the Sikh religion, there wants to distinguish and isolate strict reactions to experiencing other, similarly authentic yet maybe more apparently political, monetary, or aggressive reactions. This order is valuable for a general public that has, since the illumination, become progressively compartmentalized, ever trying to isolate activities and reactions as per their apparent inspirations. Be that as it may, when looking to the life of Abd el-Kader, whose activities frequently appear to challenge such arrangement, it gets hard to see the partitions isolating strict reactions from helpful, political, financial, battle ready, or individual ones as much else considerable than advantageous and once in a while, hazardous fictions. So as to examine the manners by which Abd el-Kader’s activities confuse thoughts of strict reaction, this exposition will concentrate on two of the Amir’s reactions/activities: the 1847 acquiescence to French powers and the Amir’s mediation to protect Christians living in Damascus in 1860. On the most central levels, the two activities challenge conventional ideas in regards to the reason for jihad and the orders sketched out in hadiths; both speak to what appear to be close to home changes in the Amir’s response to non-Muslin oppressors; both exhibit a longing to arrange Muslim customs and convictions with a world which was rapidly getting more globalized. In the two cases, the activities of the Amir mirror the worries looked by practically all strict networks: Every single strict network face this strain between strict motivation and strict activity †¦ The grieved waters that should be explored in this worldwide age lie between two shores: Respecting the privilege and truth of strict conviction and inspiration and perceiving the issue of strict activity in the pluralistic... ...s of a profound, individual lament. Despite the inspiration/class of reaction, the Amir’s words mark the decision of a long movement, from the 24-year-old who guaranteed that â€Å"paradise is found in the shadow of the sword.† The movement of Abd el-Kader’s technique for reaction to the enduring of the Muslim individuals, presents difficulties to the arrangement of strict reaction and the degree to which divisions between strict, political, philanthropic, and individual reactions to torment, both for the individual and for the network, can be practically decided. While it appears glaringly evident that there are various complex and maybe even conflicting inspirations driving a solitary reaction, maybe the more relevant inquiry to consider, in any event as far as strict examinations, is the manner in which such groupings limit or empower the legitimization of the reaction. Works Cited Hell, Paul L. Jihad Revisited.† Journal of Religious Ethics. 32.1 (2004): 95-128. Kiser, John. Leader of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader. Rhinebeck, New York: Monkfish Book Publishing, 2008. McClatchy, J.D. Jihad. Poetry. 180.6 (September 2002): 311-312. Leader of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader Essa The life of Amir Abd el-Kader was set apart by a reiteration of troublesome decisions†inquiries of whether to react to viciousness and abuse emphatically or feebly, to stay steady in counter or to give up and, in doing as such, stop pointless passing. Upon closer investigation, the difficulties and choices which went up against the Amir are not all that radically not the same as increasingly current worries of universal mediation or political change. In perusing of the Amir’s life and preceding this, the Ghost Dance of the Lakota individuals and the improvement of the Khalsa in the Sikh religion, there wants to recognize and isolate strict reactions to experiencing other, similarly real however maybe more apparently political, monetary, or battle ready reactions. This arrangement is helpful for a general public that has, since the edification, become progressively compartmentalized, ever looking to isolate activities and reactions as indicated by their apparent inspiratio ns. Be that as it may, when looking to the life of Abd el-Kader, whose activities frequently appear to oppose such order, it gets hard to see the partitions isolating strict reactions from compassionate, political, monetary, aggressive, or individual ones as much else considerable than advantageous and incidentally, perilous fictions. So as to talk about the manners by which Abd el-Kader’s activities entangle thoughts of strict reaction, this paper will concentrate on two of the Amir’s reactions/activities: the 1847 acquiescence to French powers and the Amir’s mediation to protect Christians living in Damascus in 1860. On the most basic levels, the two activities challenge customary ideas in regards to the motivation behind jihad and the decrees delineated in hadiths; both speak to what appear to be close to home changes in the Amir’s response to non-Muslin oppressors; both exhibit a longing to arrange Muslim conventions and convictions with a world which was rapidly getting more globalized. In the two cases, the activities of the Amir mirror the worries looked by practically all strict networks: Every strict network face this pressure between strict motivation and strict activity †¦ The upset waters that should be explored in this worldwide age lie between two shores: Respecting the privilege and truth of strict conviction and inspiration and perceiving the issue of strict activity in the pluralistic... ...s of a profound, individual lament. Despite the inspiration/class of reaction, the Amir’s words mark the decision of a long movement, from the 24-year-old who asserted that â€Å"paradise is found in the shadow of the sword.† The movement of Abd el-Kader’s strategy for reaction to the enduring of the Muslim individuals, presents difficulties to the arrangement of strict reaction and the degree to which divisions between strict, political, helpful, and individual reactions to torment, both for the individual and for the network, can be reasonably decided. While it appears glaringly evident that there are various complex and maybe even conflicting inspirations driving a solitary reaction, maybe the more relevant inquiry to consider, at any rate as far as strict examinations, is the manner in which such arrangements limit or empower the legitimization of the reaction. Works Cited Hell, Paul L. Jihad Revisited.† Journal of Religious Ethics. 32.1 (2004): 95-128. Kiser, John. Administrator of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader. Rhinebeck, New York: Monkfish Book Publishing, 2008. McClatchy, J.D. Jihad. Poetry. 180.6 (September 2002): 311-312.

10 Short Essay Topics on Global Warming in World Climate Change

10 Short Essay Topics on Global Warming in World Climate Change Previously, researchers and naturalists have demonstrated doubt with respect to the whole conversation encompassing a worldwide temperature alteration. This wariness was to a limited extent because of an absence of hard realities putting forth a defense for a worldwide temperature alteration or its impacts on the earth’s biological system just as human life. True to form, time and advances in science have assumed a job in chronicling an Earth-wide temperature boost utilizing genuine figures and these measurements have at long last started to tin over solidified cynics. Genuinely, an Earth-wide temperature boost has additionally started to unleash ruin on the earth’s vegetation, natural life and ocean life. These progressions incorporate deforestation, the successive event of tropical storms and dissolving of polar-ice tops. Insights just as this obvious physical proof show that right now is an ideal opportunity to examine an Earth-wide temperature boost and its belongings in our schools to instruct general society. So here, 10 realities on an Earth-wide temperature boost and its impacts on human wellbeing will be given to help understudies composing articles on these points. Two progressive articles on the best way to approach picking a theme on a dangerous atmospheric devation and human wellbeing in world environmental change and a guide for composing a short paper will be given to commend this article. The realities on a worldwide temperature alteration and human wellbeing in world environmental change you should know: Softening icy masses because of a worldwide temperature alteration antagonistically influence human wellbeing. Measurements show that the rate at which icy masses in the Arctic Circle are softening has seen an impressive increment as of late. The figures show that the liquefying rate between the years 2000-2010 is as of now multiple times higher than the rate saw in 1980 to 1990. The expanded rate because of increasing temperatures has prompted flooding in this way imperiling human life. A dangerous atmospheric devation has caused unpredictable climate designs. The climate example of the 21st century is quickly changing when contrasted with recorded examples from two decades prior. The sporadic climate design is being experienced internationally and its impacts on plant and human wellbeing incorporate expanded precipitation which influences the sensitive equalization that plants need to endure and develop. These inconsistencies additionally lead to creature relocation and with rare food assets, people in specific areas - East and West Africa - will encounter medical issues because of environmental change. A dangerous atmospheric devation has prompted outrageous warmth and dry seasons in various locales of the earth. The impacts of an Earth-wide temperature boost shift from area to locale yet through this change, measurements show that earth is at present encountering a 1-2% increments in its general temperature. The World Health Organization has recently expressed that the wellbeing edge is a 2% expansion and anything over that will be deplorable to human wellbeing. Starting today, extraordinary warmth kills around 30,000 individuals yearly in the created world while in sub-Saharan Africa roughly 20 million individuals don't approach water because of dry seasons. An Earth-wide temperature boost makes progressively cataclysmic events. Information from WHO shows that the quantity of passings brought about by catastrophic events in the 21st century has dramatically multiplied the numbers experienced in the twentieth century around 1950 to be exact. This expansion is straightforwardly relative to the increment in an unnatural weather change presently been seen today. Unfortunately, cataclysmic events have represented around 60,000 yearly in increasingly created districts of the world. A dangerous atmospheric devation makes an empowering domain that spreads diseases. The expanded temperature and flooding brought about by environmental change are gradually transforming the earth into a rearing ground for illnesses and diseases both in the created and creating world. Measurements show that ordinary floods empower the spread of waterborne ailments, for example, cholera and stream visual deficiency. Sickness conveying mosquitoes are likewise a side-effect of these overwhelmed situations and these elements cooperate in decreasing the nature of human wellbeing all around. A dangerous atmospheric devation puts the ‘fire’ in fierce blazes. despite the fact that fierce blazes are erratic event, the expanded dryness, temperature and carbon dioxide noticeable all around because of an Earth-wide temperature boost and environmental change fill in as common powers for out of control fires. A dangerous atmospheric devation has prompted an immediate increment in the quantity of out of control fires happening every year and these flames last more and cause more harm due to the earth’s evolving atmosphere. Typically, the gas and fumes discharged into the air after an out of control fire. It is harmful and assaults the respiratory arrangement of people. An Earth-wide temperature boost influences air quality. In locales where unnecessary industrialization has occurred and is right now occurring, poisons are discharged into the environment that contrarily influence it. Measurements show that the contamination brought about by power plants, vehicular discharges and excess of carbon dioxide in the environment has prompted ground level ozone exhaust cloud. This exhaust cloud influences the human respiratory framework and blocks breathing causing respiratory sickness, for example, asthma in progressively outrageous cases. An unnatural weather change antagonistically influences psychological well-being. Research has indicated that the disturbances brought about by outrageous climate changes, environmental change and cataclysmic events have prompted emotional well-being issues among influenced people. Calamities, for example, out of control fires and typhoons have prompted expanded nervousness and passionate feelings of anxiety which can aggregate with time into progressively genuine emotional well-being issues. An Earth-wide temperature boost ferments the sea. Sea fermentation happens when the world’s seas exculpate more carbon dioxide than is expected to adjust its biological system. This abundance carbon dioxide at that point separates into carbonic corrosive which kills the typical alkalinity of the sea. The drop out of sea fermentation on human wellbeing is unavoidable because of the way that 70% of people have around the seas. What's more, as the ocean’s causticity influences the living life forms in it - which people eat - undesirable acids which influence human wellbeing are ingested. A worldwide temperature alteration undermines our future wellbeing conditions. Measurements show that the earth’s temperature is set to increment by 3-4% on a yearly premise by 2030. This number which is over the 2% limit will prompt antagonistic impacts on the biological system that could cause roughly 250,000 passings for every year. A breakdown of this examination put the anticipated passing rate because of warmth strokes at 38,000, looseness of the bowels at 48,000, Malaria at 60,000 and unhealthiness at 95,000. So here we arrive at the finish of this article and we have given you 10 significant realities on a dangerous atmospheric devation and human wellbeing. Learn more by perusing different articles on choosing paper themes and how to compose a short exposition on an Earth-wide temperature boost and human wellbeing in world environmental change. References: Repel, M Canziani O. (2007). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Effects, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. Weart, R. (2004.) The Discovery of Global Warming. Cambridge: Harvard University Press Philander, S. (2012). Reference book of Global Warming and Climate Change 234, 256. Rinkesh, J. (2009). Impacts of Global Warming. monitor vitality future.com/GlobalWarmingEffects.php Singed, S. (2006). Anticipating the Effect of Climate Change on Wildlife Severity and Outcomes in California. Zhou, N. Yang, J. (2008). Potential Impact of Climate Change on Schistosomiasis Transmission in China 78, 188-94. Knowlton, K. (2009). Atmosphere and Your Health: Addressing the Most Serious Health Effects of Climate Change. https://www.nrdc.org/locales/default/documents/climatehealthfacts.pdf

Powerful Mantras for Overcoming the Entrepreneurial Rollercoaster

Powerful Mantras for Overcoming the Entrepreneurial Rollercoaster © Shutterstock.com | ImageFlowIn this article, you will learn about 1) the basics of the entrepreneurial rollercoaster, 2) its stages, 3) powerful mantras for overcoming the entrepreneurial rollercoaster, and 4) mantras that increase your productivity while being in the entrepreneurial rollercoaster.BASICS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL ROLLERCOASTERBecoming an entrepreneur is never easy especially when the risk of failure is as high as 90%. However, there are still a few brave souls who venture into the entrepreneurial world with a mindset to succeed. Starting a new business can be tough and most importantly, terrifying when there are so many risk factors involved.You may have all the funds you need but what if your business idea is not good enough? Alternatively, it may happen that your product is great and unique but your marketing strategies are not up to the mark. It is estimated that 2 out of 3 new companies usually shut down during the first two years.The chance of failure is what scares most of us. Most people prefer to work 9-5 jobs because it offers a stable income and job security, there are some people who are born to do something great â€" these individuals are the budding entrepreneurs and the business tycoons of tomorrow.However, often you may think, what is it that they do to survive the entrepreneurial rollercoaster that others do not? Here is how they do it all.It is important to remember why you started your own business venture in the first place. When the chips are down and you have to work harder than ever before for countless hours, do not fold under pressure. Remember the moment that made you want to kick-start your own business. That way, you will never lose sight of the future payoffs and stay motivated.Celebrate the little victories, as they are the small stepping-stones that will pave the way for something great in the future. The best way to do this is to set weekly or monthly goals. This will not only build momentum for your business but will also keep pushing your company forward.Having connections with likeminded people is just as necessary as having friends. Once you find people who share the same struggles as you do, hold on to them. Share ideas and take feedback from them to improve the way you do things.Handling a business is going to be tougher than you think; call it the survival of the fittest. The only way to succeed is to develop an indomitable willpower and the thirst to go forward.Interested in how to survive the first year as an entrepreneur? Read through those slides.[slideshare id=56838967doc=howtosurviveyourfirstyearasafounder2-160108195058w=640h=330]STAGES OF THE ENTREPRENEURIAL ROLLERCOASTER RIDEWhen you kick start your own business venture, things will not be easy, but they will get better with time and the amount of effort you put in to turn your project into a thriving success. Almost every entrepreneur will have to survive the five terrifying stages of the entrepreneurial rollercoaster ride. Here is what  it looks like.Stage I â€" Uninformed OptimismWhen your business idea is still in its initial implementation stage, suddenly you will feel as if the world is at your feet and you will think that you can achieve all your goals within the stipulated time frame. This is the first stage of the entrepreneurial rollercoaster ride when the adrenaline rush makes you feel highly optimistic about the prospects of your new business venture.Stage II â€" Informed PessimismOnce the business plan is ready to be implemented, you will have more information about the industry you are dealing in and that is when a sudden wave of pessimism will hit you. The anxious nervous energy will make you feel as if your new business will dwindle. Feelings of fear, frustration and nervousness will begin to set in as you proceed further.During this stage, most new entrepreneurs rethink their decision and decide to back off while some just hold onto the feeling and stay motivated throughout this phase.Stage III â€" Crisis of MeaningDuring implementation, you will not feel scared but that misery will linger on. You will keep feeling as if today is the day when you will have to shut down your business. Every day will come with new challenges that you will have to face and you will perhaps want to back out.The third stage is the most defining moment of the entrepreneurial rollercoaster ride that will either bring out the true entrepreneur in you or make you fold under pressure and back off.Stage IV â€" Crash BurnNow is the time when you have to work hard towards breaking even with the sales instead of trying to make a profit. According to finance experts, a newly setup business venture will bring in profits in the third year of business. During the first two years, you may just have to cope up with breaking even.Failure to do so may result in forced sale or bankruptcy, which is why you may want to hold back on taking any risky decisions during this stage.Stage V â€" Informed OptimismSlow ly and steadily when you build momentum, you will finally realize that you survived the ordeal and ‘made it’. Gradually, you will become more confident over time and learn the tricks of the trade that will help you take meaningful business decisions.POWERFUL MANTRAS FOR OVERCOMING THE ENTREPRENEURIAL ROLLERCOASTERIf you are thinking of starting your very own business, here are some general mantras that will help you throughout your entrepreneurial journey.Everyone Was Once a NoviceIf you feel like you are not professional enough as compared to everyone else, always remember that everyone was once a novice. It will take some time for you to get there but you can definitely make it. Learning and growing is a never-ending process. Business tycoons are not born experts. They too, went through the phases of growth.As a new entrepreneur, just focus on learning the tricks of the trade instead of trying to reach the top too quick.Measure Your Success in How Far You’ve Come â€" Not How Far You Want to GoA major mistake that many entrepreneurs make is being overambitious. Even though wanting to go far in your entrepreneurial journey is actually a good thing, it is important to have realistic expectations. When it comes to starting a new business, always measure your success in how far you have come in terms of achieving your short-term goals.This will motivate you to work harder and keep you from feeling disappointed when you realize that you have not achieved the big milestones yet.Don’t Count Your Chickens before They HatchAs a budding entrepreneur, you are bound to be excited about the whole thing. But stay grounded and think rationally as far as return on investment is concerned. For instance, if a customer tells you they want to do a million dollar deal with you, do not overspend before you actually sign the deal.Stay GroundedAll the seasoned entrepreneurs will tell you one thing about entrepreneurship â€" it is like riding a roller coaster. There will be o bstacles that you will have to overcome but it will be worth it. You need to be emotionally balanced if you want to become a successful entrepreneur. Whenever you make a business decision, think rationally by weighing all the pros and cons beforehand.Say Something PositiveIn order to stay positive, you need to have a positive mindset. Start your day by appreciating something positive in your life. As far as your work staff is concerned, motivate them by acknowledging their hard work and you will definitely see the difference when they put in more efforts to make your business more successful than ever before.Stay FocusedStaying focused as an entrepreneur is something that you will have to work. The competition in the industry may easily distract you but that is not what you have to worry about initially. Set weekly and monthly goals and spend your time on how to achieve them in the most efficient way.There Is No Shame in FailureThis is something that new entrepreneurs must understan d â€" there is no shame in failure. The mistakes you make for the first time will help you improve your strategies and iron out the kinks that you did not know were there before. Always remember â€" winners never quit, quitters never win. Take advice from other people in your support group when you face problems instead of giving up too soon.It is About the Journey, Not the DestinationAs we have discussed earlier, there are so many different factors that can and will go rogue when it comes to establishing your very own business venture. You may lose a few customers to your competitors in the beginning or end up losing a great employee. This will be the defining moment when you will have to work with your entire team and face the challenges head on.Entrepreneurship is all about the journey, not the destination. At the end of the day, celebrate all your achievements regardless of whether they are big or small.MANTRAS TO KEEP IN MIND WHEN TO INCREASE YOUR EFFICIENCY WHILE YOU ARE RIDIN G THE ROLLER COASTEREstablish Your Morning RitualIt is important for budding entrepreneurs to establish a morning routine that will keep them focused on attaining their goals. Some entrepreneurs prefer to meditate every morning before leaving for office to establish a chain of thoughts while some prefer to pen down their thoughts.You can even write a to-do list in which you can mention all the tasks that you have to complete for the day. Not only will that help you keep track on the things you have to do but it will also improve your focus on the work.Never Check Your Email Anywhere Other Than Your OfficeWhen you are at home, refrain from checking your email or even responding to work related emails no matter how important it is. Your work related emails should only be checked and responded to when you’re in office. Striking the perfect work/life balance is something that you will have to work on. Spending quality time with your family daily is just as important as spending time i n your office.Surrender All Your Doubts and WorriesNever underestimate the power of mantras. When you wake up in the morning and when you go to bed to at night, keep on repeating these lines for about five minutes to free your mind from negative thoughts. ‘I surrender all; I surrender the struggling, the doubts, and the worries. I release all blocks and know that it will all work out in the right way at the right time.’This mantra will remove all the negativity from your mind, let the positive thoughts flow into you, and make you see any situation that you are in, in a completely different way.Cut Useless ConversationsBad communication often causes mood swings and makes one feel depressed. This is one of the reasons why it is important to keep unnecessary communication with friends and colleagues to a minimum. Keep your work life and personal life separate if you do not want any negative emotional effects.However, always take out time to discuss something important with your col leagues and keep them in the loop if you need their assistance.Do Your Usual Job for a Certain Amount of Time EverydayWhether you like to write daily or monitor your business statistics, just follow your normal routine every day so that you are able to keep up with the progress of the business and know exactly what is going on. Also, all successful people have one particular habit that they follow. If you do not have one already, keep a diary and jot down all your thoughts for the day for at least an hour.Never ProcrastinateProcrastination is the one bad habit that will bring your business down. When it comes to doing business efficiently, there is no room for procrastination. Stay away from taking part in any unproductive activities that may have a bad impact on the progress of your business. The best solution to this problem is to keep a to-do list and jot down all the tasks that you have to take care of during the day.The above-mentioned were some powerful mantras that will help you survive the much-dreaded entrepreneurial roller coaster ride. Always remember, the road to success becomes easier with two things â€" hard work and determination. We hope these mantras inspire you to realize your full potential as an entrepreneur and work more efficiently than ever before.

The Sun Also Rises Setting - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 558 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/08/16 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: The Sun Also Rises Essay Did you like this example? Its 1924 in the city of love and all around paris a new wave of nostalgia is hitting the streets. A wave of classical liberals missing the days when the streets were shining and beautiful is an image that many historians believe never existed. Among these nostalgic people there existed americans and english men who had been melted into the culture of romance, and taken in by the french who before that time had hated other nations such as theirs passionately. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Sun Also Rises Setting" essay for you Create order These are the days of which Ernest Hemingway describes in The Sun Also Rises The characters Hemingway describes are in love with Paris but long for the magic that was provided before it lost its romantic charm, a charm that was described as a scent that could only be smelled when in the company of tourists. Throughout the book the sun also rises there is a single speaking voice which is that of the narrator Jake, who is also the main character. The book is set in the first person and the technique is very strong; the writer Ernest Hemingway did beautifully in the way of structure. The book jumps right into introductions including that of Jakes friend Robert Cohn and the woman he is in love with, Brett or Lady Ashley. Jake is from Kansas City in the United States and Brett is a Brit; the reason her name is Lady Ashley is because she has a title (the backstory on this is unclear). Robert Cohn is also an American and is a featherweight boxing champion. Brett and Jakes relationship serves as an example for who Jake is. He is easily love sick and hates commercialism. Jake is, in todays words an intellectual. Early on in the book Jake promises his good friend Bill a fishing trip to Spain which then turns into a fishing trip and running of the bulls attendance. According to Jake he has always wanted to see the running of the bulls and he uses words not found to have been spoken by him at any other point in the book, words like spectacular and perfect. Jake is a very cynical person, so to see him be so joyous after seeing him sigh over things like love is amazing. The running of the bulls is an event which is a festival in Pamplona Spain during the summertime. It is an event in which the people participating run down a small sectioned off city street with anywhere between 5 and 15 bulls stampeding towards them. It is supposedly one of the most beautiful times of year in spain and it is recommended by many as a must see. In the sun also rises, Bill and Jakes journey makes its way from Paris to the northern corner of Spain to pamplona for the running of the bulls. Thousands of people flock the streets to see the running of the bulls and thousands will be left with a memory not soon forgotten. The sun also rises is fiction when it comes to names, but the picture provided is hemingway is his exact memory of pamplona during the running of the bulls. The title of the sun also rises is based off of a verse in the bible which is Ecclesiastes 1:5-11 The sun also rises, and the sun goes down, And hastens to the place where it arose.

Marketing - 730 Words

Explain why the market oriented philosophy is so important. The phrase market-oriented is used in marketing conversations as an adjective describing a company with a marketing orientation. Market orientation more describes the companys approach to doing business. Market-oriented defines the company itself. If a company is market-oriented, its board and executive leadership believe that the best way to succeed is to prioritize the marketplace above products. This usually goes over well with customers, but the company also must have adequate research and development to provide what the market wants. Hence, a market-oriented organization is one whose actions are consistent with the marketing concept. Difference Between Marketing†¦show more content†¦According to the American Marketing Association definition, Marketing is â€Å"an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders Studies show that the marketing planning process is a logical process consisting of analyzing marketing opportunities, selecting target markets, designing marketing strategies, developing marketing programs, and managing the marketing effort. Hence, the market oriented philosophy is so important because it shed more lights on the importance of the marketing role instead of other philosophies roles such as in product, selling, and production concepts. The marketing concept specifies that the main task of the company is to determine the needs, wants, and preferences of a target group of customers and deliver customers’ satisfactions to generate customer satisfaction and long-run customers’ relationship and gain more profits to the organization. Now, more organizations and firms domestically and globaly started to recognize how marketing contributes to improved performance in the marketplace. References: 1- Kotler, P., amp; Keller, K, L. R., (2008). A Framework forShow MoreRelatedMarketing Analysis : Marketing And Marketing966 Words   |  4 Pagesreflect back over these last five weeks I now have a clearer view of marketing and how it affects not just the consumers of the world and the companies with their marketing managers, but how it affects me. Yes, I am a consumer who clips coupons, budgets my finances, and looks for sale items and this marketing class has taught me that marketing is more than selling or advertising. Marketing managers have a difficult job, as marketing involves identifying, meeting and satisfying the needs of customersRead MoreMarketing Analysis : Marketing And Marketing1486 Words   |  6 Pagesthis day and age, marketing plays a pivotal role in the business environment. Marketing is dynamic, complicated and challenging. The basic concept of marketing is to identify the need of human and society, and research how to satisfy and create those need. According to American Marketing Association (AMA), defining that marketing is the processed activity which communicate and exchange valuable offerings to customers (AMA, 2013). To be more precise, the main mission of marketing is choosing targetRead MoreMarketing Concept Of Marketing : Marketing1651 Words   |  7 PagesMarketing concept Marketing plays a major function in any business organisation. 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It personalizes marketing through experiential marketing and relationship marketing. â€Å"Experiential marketing promotes a product by not only communicating a product’s features and benefits but also connecting it with unique and interesting consumer experiences† (Strategic Brand Management, P. 181). Customers can easily experience a sense of community every time they walk in intoRead MoreMarketing Analysis : Marketing And Marketing1770 Words   |  8 PagesWhat is Marketing? A plethora of individuals seem to be misinformed about marketing. Several of these individuals believe that marketing is just advertising. Others will tell you that marketing is all about sales, insinuating that all marketers are just salesmen. Now these beliefs are both right and wrong. â€Å"How can they both be right and wrong at the same time?† you may be asking yourself. Well they are right, because marketing encompasses both advertising and sales. They are both wrong by assumingRead MoreMarketing Mix Of Marketing And Marketing1001 Words   |  5 PagesIn The cutting edge world of marketing dated back in the late 1950s, the four Ps were called the marketing mix, meaning that a marketing plan is a mix of four components. A company who has adopted 4P approach focuses on product, whereas company who has adopted the value approach focuses on value to the consumer. One of other marketing mix is the Value approach. This approach concentrates on delivering value to the consumers or customers, the 4Ps approach is evidently concentrated not on customersRead MoreMarketing Analysis : Marketing And Marketing1878 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Marketing research is the process that associates the consumers, customers, and end users to the marketer through information — information used to classify and describe marketing prospects and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and development understanding of marketing as a process. Marketing research identifies the information required to address these issues, designs the method for collecting information, manages and implements

Bullying in Nursing Free Essays

Bullying In Nursing Cassandra Owens Recently, during one of our weekend shifts, the unit was almost to capacity with each nurse having the max number of patients we were allowed to have. Our sister unit is the unit that gets our over flow once we are no longer able to accept any more patients. The charge nurse was a young Army Lieutenant and new to being a charge nurse. We will write a custom essay sample on Bullying in Nursing or any similar topic only for you Order Now When the nursing supervisor called to notify us of another admission, the charge nurse informed her that although we were able to accept two more patients, our sister unit only had five patients. She then asked if the other patients could be directed to the other unit. The supervisor proceeded to yell at her so loud over the phone that we could hear it, stating she would take any admission she directed towards her. Just because she was a new Lieutenant it would behoove her to mind her own floor. Our head nurse was notified and she spoke with the supervisor, but the damage had been done. The nurse is now very hesitant when she has to be charge and tries to change shifts so she will not have to do it. Bullying has been receiving a mass amount of attention due to recent horrible acts that have been committed against individuals who are considered helpless and/or weak. From psychological damage to physical harm or even death, bullying is a phenomenon that can be damaging to an individual, group or community. This fact holds true on the professional side as well. Bullying in the nursing profession has been increasingly reported over the past decade. Although bullying behaviors are unfortunately common acts committed by physicians, patients, and patient’s families, nurses also engage in bullying of their colleagues. With this recent increase, it is important to understand the ethical and legal issues associated with this behavior. Considering that the nursing profession has topped the list of the most honest and ethical professions for eleven years in a row, it is concerning that nurses would engage in behaviors that have been described as humiliating, intimidating, threatening, or demeaning aimed at their own colleagues (Matt, 2012). There are detailed codes of ethics in place that are supposed to provide guidelines for moral character. Yet, espite these guidelines, nurses engage in the aforementioned behaviors targeting their subordinates and peers. What Is Bullying/Workplace Bullying? Bullying is known by many names; aggression, incivility, mobbing, horizontal or lateral violence and intimidation are some of the synonyms that are associated with the term (Murray, 2009). Workplace bullying is a serious issue affecting the nursing profession. It is defined as any type of repetitive abuse in whi ch the victim of bullying behavior suffers verbal abuse, threats or behaviors by the perpetrator that interfere with his or her job performance (Murray, 2009). Often, workplace bullying involves abuse and/or misuse or power and authority within an organization. Bullying behaviors create feelings of defenselessness in the victim and significantly demoralize his or her right to dignity in the workplace (Murray, 2009). Looking back at the example in the introduction, after the nurse spoke with others who have been charge and had to deal with the supervisor, it was found that many of the other nurses were treated the same way. The supervisor only spoke and behaved that way to nurses who were new to the charge nurse position. As it is a requirement for military nurses to act as charge nurse in order to get leadership experience, the supervisor liked to target the newer nurses because she could intimidate them. Nursing leaders must be able to work with others to achieve common goals and be able to assess and develop new opportunities for nurses (Finkelman, 2012). This supervisor creates such a hostile and uncomfortable environment the nurses were hesitant to approach her for any type of guidance for fear of being belittled. Ethical and Legal Considerations There are several ethical principals, virtues of moral character and codes that are violated by nurses who engage in bullying behaviors. One principal is nonmaleficence, which is defined as requiring one to not engage in infliction of evil or harm on another (Matt, 2012). Since bullying behaviors have the specific intent of humiliating and demeaning another, nurses who bully others violate this principle. Justice is another principle that has many descriptions, but the most basic is fair treatment of all. All workers have a right to a safe and healthy work environment thus bullying behaviors violate the principle of justice. Bullying behavior also violate moral virtues that are associated with nursing. Discernment is the ability to make fitting judgments and reach decisions without being unduly influenced by fears (Matt, 2012). This virtue was definitely violated by my nursing supervisor. Nurses who bully also violate the virtues of compassion, integrity, and conscience; all characteristics that show the nurse demonstrate weak moral character as well as weak Christian values and characteristics. There are two ethical codes that are violated by nurses who participate in bullying behaviors. The first is the International Council of Nurses (ICN) Code of Ethics for Nurses (Matt, 2012). There are many elements that the code addresses, but when pertain to bullying, the code that is violated pertains to nurses and coworkers. It states that, â€Å"the nurse sustains a cooperative relationship with coworkers in nursing and other fields† (Matt, 2012). Of course, the ANA Code of ethics is violated; specifically provision six which states that, â€Å"the nurse participates in establishing, maintaining and improving healthcare environments and conditions of employment†¦. through individual and collective action† (Finkelman, 2012). Bullying behaviors once again defeat these purposes. Although there are currently no laws in the US specifically targeting workplace bullying, as of May 2011, 16 bills addressing the issue were active in 11 states (The Healthy Workplace Campaign) (Matt, 2012). Violations are also addressed under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). Violations of these regulations may result in citations and penalties ranging from temporary closure of a business to fines up to $70,000 per incident if an employer willfully or repeatedly violates the requirements (Matt, 2012). Not only is the employer subject to legal consequences, but the nurse who does the bullying can and will be held accountable as well. No one should be subjected to this type of difficulty while at work. Conclusion Healthcare leaders have a responsibility to employees and the public to provide work environments that are free from abuse and harassment When workplace bullying has been identified it is up to leaders to take appropriate action to ensure the abuse stops, the person is held accountable and steps are taken to ensure it does not happen again. Bullying not only affects the healthcare providers who are being targeted, but it affects the healthcare organizations as well. It is reported that bullying in the workplace can cost over $4 billion a year (Murray, 2009). It contributes to increased work dissatisfaction, absence from work and work-related injuries. Hospital administrators, human resource manages and nurse managers must educate themselves to ensure they have a clear understanding of their own responsibilities for providing a safe work environment. Individual nurses must educate themselves as well and not stand for bullying nor participate in bullying behavior. I believe nursing is a blessing and a gift from God; an artistic ability that not everyone is capable of doing. When a person decides to that advantage of this gift and blessing, it is disrespectful to the characteristics of God, which, if studied closely, are directly aligned with the virtues of nursing. I feel the following versus are direct words from God that hold us accountable for our behavior when it comes to nursing and taking care of others, be it our patients or our coworkers: 1 John 3:17 â€Å"But whoever has the world’s goods, and beholds his brother in need and closes his heart against him, how does the love of God abide in him? ; Philippians 2:4 â€Å"do not merely look out for your own personal interests, but also for the interests of others. †; and Galatians 6:10 â€Å"So then, while we have opportunity, let us do good to all men, and especially to those who are of the household of the faith. † (Society, 1999). How can we say we love God, yet do our fellow man wrong? We have to take a close look in the mirror daily and seek God’s guidance to direct our paths, because if what we do is not pleasing to God, it’s all being done in vain. References Finkelman, A. 2012). Leadership and management for nurses: Core competencies for quality care (2nd ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Matt, S. B. (2012). Ehtical and legal issues associated with bullying in the nursing profession. Journal of Nursing Law, 9-13. Murray, J. S. (2009). Workplace bullying in nursing: A problem that can’t be ignored. Medsurg Nursing, 273-6. Society, I. B. (1999). Comparative Study Bible: King James Version, Amplified Bible, New American Standard, New International Version. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. How to cite Bullying in Nursing, Papers

The Tempest Monologue Essay Example For Students

The Tempest Monologue Essay A monologue from the play by William Shakespeare TRINCULO: Here\s neither bush nor shrub to bear off any weather at all, and another storm brewing: I hear it sing i\ th\ wind. Yond same black cloud, yond huge one, looks like a foul bombard that would shed his liquor. If it should thunder as it did before, I know not where to hide my head. Yond same cloud cannot choose but fall by pailfuls. What have we here? a man or a fish? dead or alive? A fish: he smells like a fish; a very ancient and fishlike smell; a kind of not of the newest poor-John. A strange fish! Were I in England now, as once I was, and had but this fish painted, not a holiday fool there but would give a piece of silver. There would this monster make a man: any strange beast there makes a man. When they will not give a doit to relieve a lame beggar, they will lay out ten to see a dead Indian. Legged like a man! and his fins like arms! Warm, o\ my troth! I do now let loose my opinion, hold it no longer: this is no fish, but an islander, that hath lately suffered by a th underbold. Alas, the storm is come again! My best way is to creep under his gaverdine: there is no other shelter hereabout. Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. I will here shroud till the dregs of the storm be past. We will write a custom essay on The Tempest Monologue specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now

The Lifestyle of Attention Deficit Dissorder essays

The Lifestyle of Attention Deficit Dissorder essays The Lifestyle of Attention-Deficit Disorder Have you ever been around someone with ADD You may have been and never known it. People with this disorder are mostly like you and I. There are several things involved in having ADD. To have a good understanding of this disorder, you need to know the cause of it, the observational characteristics, and the impact it has on the child. Scientists have researched this disorder for years. They still dont know the cause of attention- deficit disorder. It has been regarded to be a biological disorder caused by some abnormalities in the brain. Studies have shown that areas of the brain that controls the attention span and limit impulsive behavior are less active in people with ADD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder). Other studies have a theory that this disorder could be hereditary. Most often, ADD is found in more males Than females. One study showed that about one- third of fathers with ADD in childhood have children with the disorder as well (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).There are several medications that are out there that can help the brain work normally. ADD children and adults show various observational characteristics that are evident to people with the disorder. The characteristics include various levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. Inattention, for people with ADD, causes them to have difficulty with keeping their mind on one thing. They tend to have trouble with certain tasks after a few minutes, make careless mistakes, and have trouble listening. On the opposite side of the spectrum, people with ADD sometimes can focus on and complete several things at one time. Hyperactivity is involved more with ADHD. This is ADD with the factor of hyperactivity more present. It involves almost constant motion. Children may not be ...

Biography of Brett Kavanaugh, Supreme Court Justice

Biography of Brett Kavanaugh, Supreme Court Justice Brett Michael Kavanaugh (born February 12, 1965) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Prior to his appointment, Kavanaugh served as a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Nominated to the Supreme Court by President Donald Trump on July 9, 2018, he was confirmed by the Senate on October 6, 2018, after one of the most contentious confirmation processes in U.S. history. Kavanaugh fills the vacancy created by the retirement of Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy. Compared to Kennedy, who was considered moderate on some social issues, Kavanaugh is regarded as a strong conservative voice on the Supreme Court.   Fast Facts: Brett Kavanaugh Full Name: Brett Michael KavanaughKnown for: 114th Associate Justice of the United States Supreme CourtNominated by: President Donald TrumpPreceded by: Anthony KennedyBorn: February 12, 1965, in Washington, D.C.Parents: Martha Gamble and Everett Edward Kavanaugh Jr.Wife: Ashley Estes, married 2004Children:   Daughters Liza Kavanaugh and Margaret KavanaughEducation: - Georgetown Preparatory School; Yale University, Bachelor of Arts cum laude,1987; Yale Law School, Juris Doctor, 1990Key Accomplishments: White House Staff Secretary, 2003-2006; Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, 2006-2018; Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, October 6, 2018- Early Life and Education Born on February 12, 1965, in Washington, D.C., Brett Kavanaugh is the son of Martha Gamble and Everett Edward Kavanaugh Jr. He gained his interest in the law from his parents. His mother, who held a law degree, served as a judge on the Maryland state Circuit Court from 1995 to 2001, and his father, who was also an attorney, served as president of the Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association for over 20 years As a teenager growing up in Bethesda, Maryland, Kavanaugh attended the Catholic, all-boys Georgetown Preparatory School. One of his classmates, Neil Gorsuch, went on to serve as a U.S. Supreme Court Justice. Kavanaugh graduated from Georgetown Preparatory in 1983. Kavanaugh then attended Yale University, where he was known as a â€Å"serious but not showy student,† who played on the basketball team and wrote sports articles for the campus newspaper. A member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, he graduated from Yale with a Bachelor of Arts cum laude in 1987. Kavanaugh then entered Yale Law School. During his confirmation hearing testimony, he told the Senate Judiciary Committee, â€Å"I got into Yale Law School. Thats the number-one law school in the country. I had no connections there. I got there by busting my tail in college.† An editor of the prestigious Yale Law Journal, Kavanaugh graduated from Yale Law with a Juris Doctor in 1990.   Early Legal Career Kavanaugh began his career in the law working as a clerk for judges in the Third Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals and later the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. He was also interviewed for a clerkship by Chief Justice of the United States William Rehnquist but was not offered the job. After being admitted to the Maryland Bar in 1990 and the District of Columbia Bar in 1992, Kavanaugh served a one-year fellowship with then-Solicitor General of the United States, Ken Starr, who later headed the investigation that led to the impeachment of President Bill Clinton. He then worked as a clerk for Supreme Court Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy, the justice he would eventually replace on the court. After leaving his clerkship with Justice Kennedy, Kavanaugh returned to work for Ken Starr as an Associate Counselor in the Office of the Independent Counsel. While working for Starr, Kavanaugh was a principal author of the 1998 Starr Report to Congress dealing with the Bill Clinton-Monica Lewinsky White House sex scandal. The report was cited in the House of Representatives debate as grounds for President Clinton’s impeachment. At Kavanaugh’s urging, Starr had included graphically detailed descriptions of each of Clinton’s sexual encounters with Lewinsky in the report. Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr, center, talks with Deputy Independent Counsel John Bates, left, and aide Brett Kavanaugh, right, and another colleague in the Office of the Solicitor General during the Whitewater Investigation on November 13, 1996 in Washington DC. Getty Images In December 2000, Kavanaugh joined the legal team of George W. Bush working to stop the recount of Florida’s ballots in the controversial 2000 Presidential election. In January 2001, he was named as an associate White House Counsel in the Bush Administration, where he dealt with the Enron scandal and assisted in the nomination and confirmation of Chief Justice John Roberts. From 2003 to 2006, Kavanaugh served as the Assistant to the President and White House Staff Secretary. Federal Court of Appeals Judge: 2006 to 2018 On July 25, 2003, Kavanaugh was nominated to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit by President George W. Bush. However, he would not be confirmed by the Senate until almost three years later. During the on-again-off-again confirmation hearings, Democratic senators accused Kavanaugh of being too politically partisan. After winning the recommendation of the Senate Judiciary Committee on a party-line vote on May 11, 2006, Kavanaugh was confirmed by the full Senate by a vote of 57-36 on May 11, 2006. During his 12 years as an appeals court judge, Kavanaugh authored opinions on a range of current â€Å"hot-button† issues ranging from abortion and the environment to employment discrimination law and gun control. As to his voting record, a September 2018 Washington Post analysis of some 200 of his decisions found that Kavanaugh’s judicial record had been â€Å"significantly more conservative than that of almost every other judge on the D.C. Circuit.† However, the same analysis showed that when cases for which Kavanaugh had written a majority opinion were appealed to the Supreme Court, the Supreme Court agreed with his position 13 times while reversing his position only once.   Supreme Court Nomination and Confirmation: 2018 After interviewing him, along with three other U.S. Court of Appeals judges on July 2, 2018, President Trump on July 9, nominated Kavanaugh to replace retiring Justice Anthony Kennedy on the Supreme Court. The tumultuous Senate confirmation process that played out between September 4 and October 6 would become a source of debate that deeply divided the American public along political and ideological lines.  Ã‚   Senate Confirmation Hearings Shortly after learning that President Trump was considering Kavanaugh for the Supreme Court, Dr. Christine Blasey Ford contacted the Washington Post and her local congresswoman, alleging that Kavanaugh had sexually assaulted her while they were both in high school. On September 12, Senator Dianne Feinstein (D-California) informed the Judiciary Committee that allegations of sexual assault had been lodged against Kavanaugh by a woman who did not want to be identified. On September 23, two other women Deborah Ramirez and Julie Swetnick, came forward accusing Kavanaugh of sexual misconduct. Protestors rally against Judge Brett Kavanaugh as they march in Washington, DC. Getty Images   In testimony during Senate Judiciary Committee hearings held between October 4 and October 6, Kavanaugh strongly denied all the allegations against him. Following a special supplemental FBI investigation that reportedly found no evidence corroborating Dr. Fords allegations, the full Senate voted to 50-48 to confirm Kavanaugh’s nomination on October 6, 2018. Later the same day he was sworn in as the 114th Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court by Chief Justice John Roberts in a private ceremony. Family and Personal Life On September 10, 2001, Kavanaugh had his first date with his wife, Ashley Estes, a personal secretary to President George W. Bush at the time. The next day- September 11, 2001- they were evacuated from the White House during to the 9-11-01 terrorist attacks. The couple married in 2004 and have two daughters Liza and Margaret. A lifelong Catholic, he serves as a lector at the Shrine of the Most Blessed Sacrament Church in Washington, D.C., helps deliver meals to the homeless as part of the church’s outreach programs, and has tutored at the Catholic private Washington Jesuit Academy in the District of Columbia. Sources , Brett Kavanaugh Fast FactsCNN. July 16, 2018Kellman, Laurie. ,Kavanaugh Confirmed U.S. Appellate Judge The Washington Post. (May 23, 2006)Cope, Kevin; Fischman, Joshua. ,It’s hard to find a federal judge more conservative than Brett Kavanaugh The Washington Post. (September 5, 2018)Brown, Emma. , California professor, writer of confidential Brett Kavanaugh letter, speaks out about her allegation of sexual assaultThe Washington Post. (September 16, 2018)Pramuk, Jacob. , Trump Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh categorically denies sexual misconduct accusation detailed in New Yorker reportCNBC. (September 14, 2018)Sampathkumar, Mythili. ,Brett Kavanaugh confirmed to Supreme Court amid widespread outcry over sexual assault allegations The Independent. New York. (October 6, 2018)

Award criteria and nomination report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Award criteria and nomination report - Essay Example Financial reporting and financial statements play an important role in projecting the position of a company in the market. Share holders and all the related groups find financial reporting as an important tool, which help them in making decisions regarding business. Financial reporting covers a wide range of Information as compared to the financial statements only. In broader perspective financial statements are the part of financial reporting but financial reporting is much more than financial statement. With the changing global business environment the reporting needs of the business has also transformed. The information required in to be reported is much more than the cash activities. Now days the requirement of information disclosure from both internal and external sides has been increased. The advancement and the volatile nature of business are replacing the old methodologies. The users of the information are become much more aware. This has given rise to the accountability. The Companies are required to disclose information related to more aspects than in past. Transparency of the information has also become a necessity. The Financial information disclosed by a company to its stakeholders are required to posses some important characteristics so that it can serve the purpose of the users in successful manner. A brief discussion of these qualities is given as under.

What will it take for you to be where you want to be 25 years from now Essay

What will it take for you to be where you want to be 25 years from now - Essay Example It must be obvious to see that the goal require investments now and this would prompt me to make a list of where will I get the resources to finance my education in school. The minimum kind of education that a successful psychologist should have should include finishing a graduate and post graduate degree. I will take up my undergraduate degree in psychology at University of Louisiana at Lafayette (ULL) in the fall. The resources during my undergraduate which would have to come primarily from my parents and loved one with some self-help in case I will decide to work as well as study. More than the financial resources, of course, is the emotional support of my parents and loves ones to build on virtues for success which I will discuss in this paper. After finishing my undergraduate degree I plan to get a work experience of two to three years before I will make graduate degree to be followed by a post-graduate.1 This is a long journey and it would take a combination of patience and perseverance as necessary virtues to be able to be what I want to be 25 year from now. What it means to be patient can be seen in the life of a turtle. The turtle may be slow moving but its every move is calculated and it can use its scales for survival and protection as well as adjustment. By comparing my desired characteristics to be successful to that of a turtle, the same would mean having to use my â€Å"scales† which I equate with my positive outlook in life with high sense of realism. If I would have to burn the midnight oil when I have to do my school works and assignment, I will have to. In school I know there would be many assignment, research works and projects that must be accomplished before deadlines and impatient people cannot simply have them accomplished. I believe the best way to prepare for them is the virtue of patience. A

Development of Intelligent Sensor System

Development of Intelligent Sensor System Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction What is Automation? Automation in general, can be explained as the use of computers or microcontrollers to control industrial machinery and processes thereby fully replacing human operators. Automation is a kind of transition from mechanization. In mechanization, human operators are provided with machinery to assist their operations, where as automation fully replaces the human operators with computers. The advantages of automation are: Increased productivity and higher production rates. Better product quality and efficient use of resources. Greater control and consistency of products. Improved safety and reduced factory lead times. Home Automation Home automation is the field specializing in the general and specific automation requirements of homes and apartments for their better safety, security and comfort of its residents. It is also called Domotics. Home automation can be as simple as controlling a few lights in the house or as complicated as to monitor and to record the activities of each resident. Automation requirements depend on person to person. Some may be interested in the home security while others will be more into comfort requirements. Basically, home automation is anything that gives automatic control of things in your house. Some of the commonly used features in home automation are: Control of lighting. Climate control of rooms. Security and surveillance systems. Control of home entertainment systems. House plant watering system. Overhead tank water level controllers. Intelligent Sensors Complex large-scale systems consist of a large number of interconnected components. Mastering the dynamic behavior of such systems, calls for distributed control architectures. This can be achieved by implementing control and estimation algorithms in several controllers. Some algorithms manipulate only local variables (which are available in the local interface) but in most cases, algorithms implemented in some given computing device will use variables which are available in this devices local interface, and also variables which are input to the control system via remote interfaces, thus rising the need for communication networks, whose architecture and complexity depend on the amount of data to be exchanged, and on the associated time constraints. Associating computing (and communication) devices with sensing or actuating functions, has given rise to intelligent sensors. These sensors have gained a huge success in the past ten years, especially with the development of neural network s, fuzzy logic, and soft computing algorithms. The modern definition of smart or intelligent sensors can be formulated now as: ‘Smart sensor is an electronic device, including sensing element, interfacing, signal processing and having several intelligence functions as self-testing, self-identification, self-validation or self-adaptation. The keyword in this definition is ‘intelligence. The self-adaptation is a relatively new function of smart sensors and sensor systems. Self-adaptation smart sensors and systems are based on so-called adaptive algorithms and directly connected with precision measurements of frequency-time parameters of electrical signals. The later chapters will give an elaborate view on why we should use intelligent sensors, intelligent sensor structure, characteristics and network standards. Chapter 2 2.1 Conventional Sensors Before talking more on intelligent sensors, first we need to examine regular sensors in order to obtain a solid foundation on which we can develop our understanding on intelligent sensors. Most of the conventional sensors have shortcomings, both technically and economically. For a sensor to work effectively, it must be calibrated. That is, its output must be made to match some predetermined standard so that its reported values correctly reflect the parameter being measured. In the case of a bulb thermometer, the graduations next to the mercury column must be positioned so that they accurately correspond to the level of mercury for a given temperature. If the sensor is not calibrated, the information that it reports wont be accurate, which can be a big problem for the systems that use the reported information. The second concern one has when dealing with sensors is that their properties usually change over time, a phenomenon knows as drift. For instance, suppose we are measuring a DC current in a particular part of a circuit by monitoring the voltage across a resistor in that circuit. In this case, the sensor is the resistor and the physical property that we are measuring the voltage across it. As the resistor ages, its chemical properties will change, thus altering its resistance. As with the issue of calibration, some situations require much stricter drift tolerances than others; the point is that sensor properties will change with time unless we compensate for the drift in some fashion, and these changes are usually undesirable. The third problem is that not only do sensors themselves change with time, but so, too, does the environment in which they operate. An excellent example of that would be the electronic ignition for an internal combustion engine. Immediately after a tune-up, all the belts are tight, the spark plugs are new, the fuel injectors are clean, and the air filter is pristine. From that moment on, things go downhill; the belts loosen, deposits build up on the spark plugs and fuel injectors, and the air filter becomes clogged with ever-increasing amounts of dirt and dust. Unless the electronic ignition can measure how things are changing and make adjustments, the settings and timing sequence that it uses to fire the spark plugs will become progressively mismatched for the engine conditions, resulting in poorer performance and reduced fuel efficiency. The ability to compensate for often extreme changes in the operating environment makes a huge difference in a sensors value to a particular applic ation. Yet a fourth problem is that most sensors require some sort of specialized hardware called signal-conditioning circuitry in order to be of use in monitoring or control applications. The signal-conditioning circuitry is what transforms the physical sensor property that were monitoring (often an analog electrical voltage that varies in some systematic way with the parameter being measured) into a measurement that can be used by the rest of the system. Depending upon the application, the signal conditioning may be as simple as a basic amplifier that boosts the sensor signal to a usable level or it may entail complex circuitry that cleans up the sensor signal and compensates for environmental conditions, too. Frequently, the conditioning circuitry itself has to be tuned for the specific sensor being used, and for analog signals that often means physically adjusting a potentiometer or other such trimming device. In addition, the configuration of the signal-conditioning circuitry tends to be unique to both the specific type of sensor and to the application itself, which means that different types of sensors or different applications frequently need customized circuitry. Finally, standard sensors usually need to be physically close to the control and monitoring systems that receive their measurements. In general, the farther a sensor is from the system using its measurements, the less useful the measurements are. This is due primarily to the fact that sensor signals that are run long distances are susceptible to electronic noise, thus degrading the quality of the readings at the receiving end. In many cases, sensors are connected to the monitoring and control systems using specialized (and expensive) cabling; the longer this cabling is, the more costly the installation, which is never popular with end users. A related problem is that sharing sensor outputs among multiple systems becomes very difficult, particularly if those systems are physically separated. This inability to share outputs may not seem important, but it severely limits the ability to scale systems to large installations, resulting in much higher costs to install and support multiple r edundant sensors. What we really need to do is to develop some technique by which we can solve or at least greatly alleviate these problems of calibration, drift, and signal conditioning. 2.2 Making Sensors Intelligent Control systems are becoming increasingly complicated and generate increasingly complex control information. Control must nevertheless be exercised, even under such circumstances. Even considering just the detection of abnormal conditions or the problems of giving a suitable warning, devices are required that can substitute for or assist human sensation, by detecting and recognizing multi-dimensional information, and conversion of non visual information into visual form. In systems possessing a high degree of functionality, efficiency must be maximized by division of the information processing function into central processing and processing dispersed to local sites. With increased progress in automation, it has become widely recognized that the bottleneck in such systems lies with the sensors. Such demands are difficult to deal with by simply improvising the sensor devices themselves. Structural reinforcement, such as using array of sensors, or combinations of different types of sensors, and reinforcement from the data processing aspect by a signal processing unit such as a computer, are indispensible. In particular, the data processing and sensing aspects of the various stages involved in multi-dimensional measurement, image construction, characteristic extraction and pattern recognition, which were conventionally performed exclusively by human beings, have been tremendously enhanced by advances in micro-electronics. As a result, in many cases sensor systems have been implemented that substitute for some or all of the intellectual actions of human beings, i.e. intelligent sensor systems. Sensors which are made intelligent in this way are called ‘intelligent sensors or ‘smart sensors. According to Breckenridge and Husson, the smart sensor itself has a data processing function and automatic calibration/automatic compensation function, in which the sensor itself detects and eliminates abnormal values or exceptional values. It incorporates an algorithm, which is capable of being altered, and has a certain degree of memory function. Further desirable characteristics are that the sensor is coupled to other sensors, adapts to changes in environmental conditions, and has a discriminant function. Scientific measuring instruments that are employed for observation and measurement of physical world are indispensible extensions of our senses and perceptions in the scientific examination of nature. In recognizing nature, we mobilize all the resources of information obtained from the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell etc. and combine these sensory data in such a way as to avoid contradiction. Thus more reliable, higher order data is obtained by combining data of different types. That is, there is a data processing mechanism that combines and processes a number of sensory data. The concept of combining sensors to implement such a data processing mechanism is called ‘sensor fusion 2.2.1 Digitizing the Sensor Signal The discipline of digital signal processing or DSP, in which signals are manipulated mathematically rather than with electronic circuitry, is well established and widely practiced. Standard transformations, such as filtering to remove unwanted noise or frequency mappings to identify particular signal components, are easily handled using DSP. Furthermore, using DSP principles we can perform operations that would be impossible using even the most advanced electronic circuitry. For that very reason, todays designers also include a stage in the signal-conditioning circuitry in which the analog electrical signal is converted into a digitized numeric value. This step, called analog-to-digital conversion, A/D conversion, or ADC, is vitally important, because as soon as we can transform the sensor signal into a numeric value, we can manipulate it using software running on a microprocessor. Analog-to-digital converters, or ADCs as theyre referred to, are usually single-chip semiconductor devices that can be made to be highly accurate and highly stable under varying environmental conditions. The required signal-conditioning circuitry can often be significantly reduced, since much of the environmental compensation circuitry can be made a part of the ADC and filtering can be performed in software. 2.2.2 Adding Intelligence Once the sensor signal has been digitized, there are two primary options in how we handle those numeric values and the algorithms that manipulate them. We can either choose to implement custom digital hardware that essentially â€Å"hard-wires† our processing algorithm, or we can use a microprocessor to provide the necessary computational power. In general, custom hardware can run faster than microprocessor-driven systems, but usually at the price of increased production costs and limited flexibility. Microprocessors, while not necessarily as fast as a custom hardware solution, offer the great advantage of design flexibility and tend to be lower-priced since they can be applied to a variety of situations rather than a single application. Once we have on-board intelligence, were able to solve several of the problems that we noted earlier. Calibration can be automated, component drift can be virtually eliminated through the use of purely mathematical processing algorithms, and we can compensate for environmental changes by monitoring conditions on a periodic basis and making the appropriate adjustments automatically. Adding a brain makes the designers life much easier. 2.2.3 Communication Interface The sharing of measurements with other components within the system or with other systems adds to the value of these measurements. To do this, we need to equip our intelligent sensor with a standardized means to communicate its information to other elements. By using standardized methods of communication, we ensure that the sensors information can be shared as broadly, as easily, and as reliably as possible, thus maximizing the usefulness of the sensor and the information it produces. Thus these three factors consider being mandatory for an intelligent sensor: A sensing element that measures one or more physical parameters (essentially the traditional sensor weve been discussing), A computational element that analyzes the measurements made by the sensing element, and A communication interface to the outside world that allows the device to exchange information with other components in a larger system. Its the last two elements that really distinguish intelligent sensors from their more common standard sensor relatives because they provide the abilities to turn data directly into information, to use that information locally, and to communicate it to other elements in the system. 2.3 Types of Intelligent Sensors Intelligent sensors are chosen depending on the object, application, precision system, environment of use and cost etc. In such cases consideration must be given as to what is an appropriate evaluation standard. This question involves a multi-dimensional criterion and is usually very difficult. The evaluation standard directly reflects the sense of value itself applied in the design and manufacture of the target system. This must therefore be firmly settled at the system design stage. In sensor selection, the first matter to be considered is determination of the subject of measurement. The second matter to be decided on is the required precision and dynamic range. The third is ease of use, cost, delivery time etc., and ease of maintenance in actual use and compatibility with other sensors in the system. The type of sensor should be matched to such requirements at the design stage. Sensors are usually classified by the subject of measurement and the principle of sensing action. 2.3.1 Classification Based on Type of Input In this, the sensor is classified in accordance with the physical phenomenon that is needed to be detected and the subject of measurement. Some of the examples include voltage, current, displacement and pressure. A list of sensors and their categories are mentioned in the following table. Category Type Dynamic Quantity Flow rate, Pressure, force, tension Speed, acceleration Sound, vibration Distortion, direction proximity Optical Quantities Light (infra red, visible light or radiation) Electromagnetic Quantities Current, voltage, frequency, phase, vibration, magnetism Quantity of Energy or Heat Temperature, humidity, dew point Chemical Quantities Analytic sensors, gas, odour, concentration, pH, ions Sensory Quantities or Biological Quantities Touch, vision, smell Table 2.3.1: Sensed items Classified in accordance with subject of measurement. 2.3.2 Classification Based on Type of Output In an intelligent sensor, it is often necessary to process in an integrated manner the information from several sensors or from a single sensor over a given time range. A computer of appropriate level is employed for such purposes in practically y all cases. For coupling to the computer when constructing an intelligent sensor system, a method with a large degree of freedom is therefore appropriate. It is also necessary to pay careful attention to the type of physical quantity carrying the output information to the sensor, and to the information description format of this physical quantity or dynamic quantity, and for the description format an analog, digital or encoded method etc., might be used. Although any physical quantities could be used as output signal, electrical quantities such as voltage are more convenient for data input to a computer. The format of the output signal can be analog or digital. For convenience in data input to the computer, it is preferable if the output signal of the sensor itself is in the form of a digital electrical signal. In such cases, a suitable means of signal conversion must be provided to input the data from the sensor to the computer 2.3.3 Classification Based on Accuracy When a sensor system is constructed, the accuracy of the sensors employed is a critical factor. Usually sensor accuracy is expressed as the minimum detectable quantity. This is determined by the sensitivity of the sensor and the internally generated noise of the sensor itself. Higher sensitivity and lower internal noise level imply greater accuracy. Generally for commercially available sensors the cost of the sensor is determined by the accuracy which it is required to have. If no commercial sensor can be found with the necessary accuracy, a custom product must be used, which will increase the costs. For ordinary applications an accuracy of about 0.1% is sufficient. Such sensors can easily be selected from commercially available models. Dynamic range (full scale deflection/minimum detectable quantity) has practically the same meaning as accuracy, and is expressed in decibel units. For example a dynamic range of 60dB indicates that the full scale deflection is 103 times the minimum detectable quantity. That is, a dynamic range of 60dB is equivalent to 0.1% accuracy. In conventional sensors, linearity of output was regarded as quite important. However, in intelligent sensor technology the final stage is normally data processing by computer, so output linearity is not a particular problem. Any sensor providing a reproducible relationship of input and output signal can be used in an intelligent sensor system. Chapter 3 3.1 Sensor selection The function of a sensor is to receive some action from a single phenomenon of the subject of measurement and to convert this to another physical phenomenon that can be more easily handled. The phenomenon constituting the subject of measurement is called the input signal, and the phenomenon after conversion is called the output signal. The ratio of the output signal to the input signal is called the transmittance or gain. Since the first function of a sensor is to convert changes in the subject of measurement to a physical phenomenon that can be more easily handled, i.e. its function consists in primary conversion, its conversion efficiency, or the degree of difficulty in delivering the output signal to the transducer constituting the next stage is of secondary importance The first point to which attention must be paid in sensor selection is to preserve as far as possible the information of the input signal. This is equivalent to preventing lowering of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). For example, if the SNR of the input signal is 60 dB, a sensor of dynamic range less than 60 dB should not be used. In order to detect changes in the quantity being measured as faithfully as possible, a sensor is required to have the following properties. Non-interference. This means that its output should not be changed by factors other than changes in the subject of measurement. Conversion satisfying this condition is called direct measurement. Conversion wherein the measurement quantity is found by calculation from output signals determined under the influence of several input signals is called indirect measurement. High sensitivity. The amount of change of the output signal that is produced by a change of unit amount of the input quantity being measured, i.e. the gain, should be as large as possible. Small measurement pressure. This means that the sensor should not disturb the physical conditions of the subject of measurement. From this point of view, modulation conversion offers more freedom than direct-acting conversion. High speed. The sensor should have sufficiently high speed of reaction to track the maximum anticipated rate of variation of the measured quantity. Low noise. The noise generated by the sensor itself should be as little as possible. Robustness. The output signal must be at least more robust than the quantity being measured, and be easier to handle. Robustness means resistance to environmental changes and/or noise. In general, phenomena of large energy are more resistant to external disturbance such as noise than are phenomena of smaller energy, they are easier to handle, and so have better robustness. If a sensor can be obtained that satisfies all these conditions, there is no problem. However, in practice, one can scarcely expect to obtain a sensor satisfying all these conditions. In such cases, it is necessary to combine the sensor with a suitable compensation mechanism, or to compensate the transducer of the secondary converter. Progress in IC manufacturing technology has made it possible to integrate various sensor functions. With the progressive shift from mainframes to minicomputers and hence to microcomputers, control systems have changed from centralized processing systems to distributed processing systems. Sensor technology has also benefited from such progress in IC manufacturing technology, with the result that systems whereby information from several sensors is combined and processed have changed from centralized systems to dispersed systems. Specifically, attempts are being made to use silicon-integrated sensors in a role combining primary data processing and input in systems that measure and process two-dimensional information such as picture information. This is a natural application of silicon precision working technology and digital circuit technology, which have been greatly advanced by introduction of VLSI manufacturing technology. Three-dimensional integrated circuits for recognizing letter patterns and odour sensors, etc., are examples of this. Such sensor systems can be called perfectly intelligent sensors in that they themselves have a certain data processing capability. It is characteristic of such sensors to combine several sensor inputs and to include a microprocessor that performs data processing. Their output signal is not a simple conversion of the input signal, but rather an abstract quantity obtained by some reorganization and combination of input signals from several sensors. This type of signal conversion is now often performed by a distributed processing mechanism, in which microprocessors are used to carry out the data processing that was previously performed by a centralized computer system having a large number of interfaces to individual sensors. However, the miniaturization obtained by application of integrated circuit techniques brings about an increase in the flexibility of coupling between elements. This has a substantial effect. Sensors of this type constitute a new technology that is at present being researched and developed. Although further progress can be expected, the overall picture cannot be predicted at the present time. Technically, practically free combinations of sensors can be implemented with the object of so-called indirect measurement, in which the signals from several individual sensors that were conventionally present are collected and used as the basis for a new output signal. In many aspects, new ideas are required concerning determination of the object of measurement, i.e. which measured quantities are to be selected, determination of the individual functions to achieve this, and the construction of the framework to organize these as a system. 3.2 Structure of an Intelligent Sensor The rapidity of development in microelectronics has had a profound effect on the whole of instrumentation science, and it has blurred some of the conceptual boundaries which once seemed so firm. In the present context the boundary between sensors and instruments is particularly uncertain. Processes which were once confined to a large electronic instrument are now available within the housing of a compact sensor, and it is some of these processes which we discuss later in this chapter. An instrument in our context is a system which is designed primarily to act as a free standing device for performing a particular set of measurements; the provision of communications facilities is of secondary importance. A sensor is a system which is designed primarily to serve a host system and without its communication channel it cannot serve its purpose. Nevertheless, the structures and processes used within either device, be they hardware or software, are similar. The range of disciplines which arc brought together in intelligent sensor system design is considerable, and the designer of such systems has to become something of a polymath. This was one of the problems in the early days of computer-aided measurement and there was some resistance from the backwoodsmen who practiced the art of measurement. 3.2.1 Elements of Intelligent Sensors The intelligent sensor is an example of a system, and in it we can identify a number of sub-systems whose functions are clearly distinguished from each other. The principal sub-systems within an intelligent sensor are: A primary sensing element Excitation Control Amplification (Possibly variable gain) Analogue filtering Data conversion Compensation Digital Information Processing Digital Communication Processing The figure illustrates the way in which these sub-systems relate to each other. Some of the realizations of intelligent sensors, particularly the earlier ones, may incorporate only some of these elements. The primary sensing element has an obvious fundamental importance. It is more than simply the familiar traditional sensor incorporated into a more up-to-date system. Not only are new materials and mechanisms becoming available for exploitation, but some of those that have been long known yet discarded because of various difficulties of behaviour may now be reconsidered in the light of the presence of intelligence to cope with these difficul ­ties. Excitation control can take a variety of forms depending on the circumstances. Some sensors, such as the thermocouple, convert energy directly from one form to another without the need for additional excitation. Others may require fairly elaborate forms of supply. It may be alternating or pulsed for subsequent coherent or phase-sensitive detection. In some circumstances it may be necessary to provide extremely stable supplies to the sensing element, while in others it may be necessary for those supplies to form part of a control loop to maintain the operating condition of the clement at some desired optimum. While this aspect may not be thought fundamental to intelligent sensors there is a largely unexplored range of possibilities for combining it with digital processing to produce novel instrumentation techniques. Amplification of the electrical output of the primary sensing element is almost invariably a requirement. This can pose design problems where high gain is needed. Noise is a particular hazard, and a circumstance unique to the intelligent form of sensor is the presence of digital buses carrying signals with sharp transitions. For this reason circuit layout is a particularly important part of the design process. Analogue filtering is required at minimum to obviate aliasing effects in the conversion stage, but it is also attractive where digital filtering would lake up too much of the real-time processing power available. Data conversion is the stage of transition between the continuous real world and the discrete internal world of the digital processor. It is important to bear in mind that the process of analogue to digital conversion is a non-linear one and represents a potentially gross distortion of the incoming information. It is important, however, for the intelligent sensor designer always to remember that this corruption is present, and in certain circumstances it can assume dominating importance. Such circumstances would include the case where the conversion process is part of a control loop or where some sort of auto-ranging, overt or covert, is built in to the operational program. Compensation is an inevitable part of the intelligent sensor. The operating point of the sensors may change due to various reasons. One of them is temperature. So an intelligent sensor must have an inbuilt compensation setup to bring the operating point back to its standard set stage. Information processing is, of course, unique to the intelligent form of sensor. There is some overlap between compensation and information processing, but there are also significant areas on independence. An important aspect is the condensation of information, which is necessary to preserve the two most precious resources of the industrial measurement system, the information bus and the central processor. A prime example of data condensa ­tion occurs in the Doppler velocimctcr in which a substantial quantity of informa ­tion is reduced to a single number representing the velocity. Sensor compensation will in general require the processi Development of Intelligent Sensor System Development of Intelligent Sensor System Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction What is Automation? Automation in general, can be explained as the use of computers or microcontrollers to control industrial machinery and processes thereby fully replacing human operators. Automation is a kind of transition from mechanization. In mechanization, human operators are provided with machinery to assist their operations, where as automation fully replaces the human operators with computers. The advantages of automation are: Increased productivity and higher production rates. Better product quality and efficient use of resources. Greater control and consistency of products. Improved safety and reduced factory lead times. Home Automation Home automation is the field specializing in the general and specific automation requirements of homes and apartments for their better safety, security and comfort of its residents. It is also called Domotics. Home automation can be as simple as controlling a few lights in the house or as complicated as to monitor and to record the activities of each resident. Automation requirements depend on person to person. Some may be interested in the home security while others will be more into comfort requirements. Basically, home automation is anything that gives automatic control of things in your house. Some of the commonly used features in home automation are: Control of lighting. Climate control of rooms. Security and surveillance systems. Control of home entertainment systems. House plant watering system. Overhead tank water level controllers. Intelligent Sensors Complex large-scale systems consist of a large number of interconnected components. Mastering the dynamic behavior of such systems, calls for distributed control architectures. This can be achieved by implementing control and estimation algorithms in several controllers. Some algorithms manipulate only local variables (which are available in the local interface) but in most cases, algorithms implemented in some given computing device will use variables which are available in this devices local interface, and also variables which are input to the control system via remote interfaces, thus rising the need for communication networks, whose architecture and complexity depend on the amount of data to be exchanged, and on the associated time constraints. Associating computing (and communication) devices with sensing or actuating functions, has given rise to intelligent sensors. These sensors have gained a huge success in the past ten years, especially with the development of neural network s, fuzzy logic, and soft computing algorithms. The modern definition of smart or intelligent sensors can be formulated now as: ‘Smart sensor is an electronic device, including sensing element, interfacing, signal processing and having several intelligence functions as self-testing, self-identification, self-validation or self-adaptation. The keyword in this definition is ‘intelligence. The self-adaptation is a relatively new function of smart sensors and sensor systems. Self-adaptation smart sensors and systems are based on so-called adaptive algorithms and directly connected with precision measurements of frequency-time parameters of electrical signals. The later chapters will give an elaborate view on why we should use intelligent sensors, intelligent sensor structure, characteristics and network standards. Chapter 2 2.1 Conventional Sensors Before talking more on intelligent sensors, first we need to examine regular sensors in order to obtain a solid foundation on which we can develop our understanding on intelligent sensors. Most of the conventional sensors have shortcomings, both technically and economically. For a sensor to work effectively, it must be calibrated. That is, its output must be made to match some predetermined standard so that its reported values correctly reflect the parameter being measured. In the case of a bulb thermometer, the graduations next to the mercury column must be positioned so that they accurately correspond to the level of mercury for a given temperature. If the sensor is not calibrated, the information that it reports wont be accurate, which can be a big problem for the systems that use the reported information. The second concern one has when dealing with sensors is that their properties usually change over time, a phenomenon knows as drift. For instance, suppose we are measuring a DC current in a particular part of a circuit by monitoring the voltage across a resistor in that circuit. In this case, the sensor is the resistor and the physical property that we are measuring the voltage across it. As the resistor ages, its chemical properties will change, thus altering its resistance. As with the issue of calibration, some situations require much stricter drift tolerances than others; the point is that sensor properties will change with time unless we compensate for the drift in some fashion, and these changes are usually undesirable. The third problem is that not only do sensors themselves change with time, but so, too, does the environment in which they operate. An excellent example of that would be the electronic ignition for an internal combustion engine. Immediately after a tune-up, all the belts are tight, the spark plugs are new, the fuel injectors are clean, and the air filter is pristine. From that moment on, things go downhill; the belts loosen, deposits build up on the spark plugs and fuel injectors, and the air filter becomes clogged with ever-increasing amounts of dirt and dust. Unless the electronic ignition can measure how things are changing and make adjustments, the settings and timing sequence that it uses to fire the spark plugs will become progressively mismatched for the engine conditions, resulting in poorer performance and reduced fuel efficiency. The ability to compensate for often extreme changes in the operating environment makes a huge difference in a sensors value to a particular applic ation. Yet a fourth problem is that most sensors require some sort of specialized hardware called signal-conditioning circuitry in order to be of use in monitoring or control applications. The signal-conditioning circuitry is what transforms the physical sensor property that were monitoring (often an analog electrical voltage that varies in some systematic way with the parameter being measured) into a measurement that can be used by the rest of the system. Depending upon the application, the signal conditioning may be as simple as a basic amplifier that boosts the sensor signal to a usable level or it may entail complex circuitry that cleans up the sensor signal and compensates for environmental conditions, too. Frequently, the conditioning circuitry itself has to be tuned for the specific sensor being used, and for analog signals that often means physically adjusting a potentiometer or other such trimming device. In addition, the configuration of the signal-conditioning circuitry tends to be unique to both the specific type of sensor and to the application itself, which means that different types of sensors or different applications frequently need customized circuitry. Finally, standard sensors usually need to be physically close to the control and monitoring systems that receive their measurements. In general, the farther a sensor is from the system using its measurements, the less useful the measurements are. This is due primarily to the fact that sensor signals that are run long distances are susceptible to electronic noise, thus degrading the quality of the readings at the receiving end. In many cases, sensors are connected to the monitoring and control systems using specialized (and expensive) cabling; the longer this cabling is, the more costly the installation, which is never popular with end users. A related problem is that sharing sensor outputs among multiple systems becomes very difficult, particularly if those systems are physically separated. This inability to share outputs may not seem important, but it severely limits the ability to scale systems to large installations, resulting in much higher costs to install and support multiple r edundant sensors. What we really need to do is to develop some technique by which we can solve or at least greatly alleviate these problems of calibration, drift, and signal conditioning. 2.2 Making Sensors Intelligent Control systems are becoming increasingly complicated and generate increasingly complex control information. Control must nevertheless be exercised, even under such circumstances. Even considering just the detection of abnormal conditions or the problems of giving a suitable warning, devices are required that can substitute for or assist human sensation, by detecting and recognizing multi-dimensional information, and conversion of non visual information into visual form. In systems possessing a high degree of functionality, efficiency must be maximized by division of the information processing function into central processing and processing dispersed to local sites. With increased progress in automation, it has become widely recognized that the bottleneck in such systems lies with the sensors. Such demands are difficult to deal with by simply improvising the sensor devices themselves. Structural reinforcement, such as using array of sensors, or combinations of different types of sensors, and reinforcement from the data processing aspect by a signal processing unit such as a computer, are indispensible. In particular, the data processing and sensing aspects of the various stages involved in multi-dimensional measurement, image construction, characteristic extraction and pattern recognition, which were conventionally performed exclusively by human beings, have been tremendously enhanced by advances in micro-electronics. As a result, in many cases sensor systems have been implemented that substitute for some or all of the intellectual actions of human beings, i.e. intelligent sensor systems. Sensors which are made intelligent in this way are called ‘intelligent sensors or ‘smart sensors. According to Breckenridge and Husson, the smart sensor itself has a data processing function and automatic calibration/automatic compensation function, in which the sensor itself detects and eliminates abnormal values or exceptional values. It incorporates an algorithm, which is capable of being altered, and has a certain degree of memory function. Further desirable characteristics are that the sensor is coupled to other sensors, adapts to changes in environmental conditions, and has a discriminant function. Scientific measuring instruments that are employed for observation and measurement of physical world are indispensible extensions of our senses and perceptions in the scientific examination of nature. In recognizing nature, we mobilize all the resources of information obtained from the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell etc. and combine these sensory data in such a way as to avoid contradiction. Thus more reliable, higher order data is obtained by combining data of different types. That is, there is a data processing mechanism that combines and processes a number of sensory data. The concept of combining sensors to implement such a data processing mechanism is called ‘sensor fusion 2.2.1 Digitizing the Sensor Signal The discipline of digital signal processing or DSP, in which signals are manipulated mathematically rather than with electronic circuitry, is well established and widely practiced. Standard transformations, such as filtering to remove unwanted noise or frequency mappings to identify particular signal components, are easily handled using DSP. Furthermore, using DSP principles we can perform operations that would be impossible using even the most advanced electronic circuitry. For that very reason, todays designers also include a stage in the signal-conditioning circuitry in which the analog electrical signal is converted into a digitized numeric value. This step, called analog-to-digital conversion, A/D conversion, or ADC, is vitally important, because as soon as we can transform the sensor signal into a numeric value, we can manipulate it using software running on a microprocessor. Analog-to-digital converters, or ADCs as theyre referred to, are usually single-chip semiconductor devices that can be made to be highly accurate and highly stable under varying environmental conditions. The required signal-conditioning circuitry can often be significantly reduced, since much of the environmental compensation circuitry can be made a part of the ADC and filtering can be performed in software. 2.2.2 Adding Intelligence Once the sensor signal has been digitized, there are two primary options in how we handle those numeric values and the algorithms that manipulate them. We can either choose to implement custom digital hardware that essentially â€Å"hard-wires† our processing algorithm, or we can use a microprocessor to provide the necessary computational power. In general, custom hardware can run faster than microprocessor-driven systems, but usually at the price of increased production costs and limited flexibility. Microprocessors, while not necessarily as fast as a custom hardware solution, offer the great advantage of design flexibility and tend to be lower-priced since they can be applied to a variety of situations rather than a single application. Once we have on-board intelligence, were able to solve several of the problems that we noted earlier. Calibration can be automated, component drift can be virtually eliminated through the use of purely mathematical processing algorithms, and we can compensate for environmental changes by monitoring conditions on a periodic basis and making the appropriate adjustments automatically. Adding a brain makes the designers life much easier. 2.2.3 Communication Interface The sharing of measurements with other components within the system or with other systems adds to the value of these measurements. To do this, we need to equip our intelligent sensor with a standardized means to communicate its information to other elements. By using standardized methods of communication, we ensure that the sensors information can be shared as broadly, as easily, and as reliably as possible, thus maximizing the usefulness of the sensor and the information it produces. Thus these three factors consider being mandatory for an intelligent sensor: A sensing element that measures one or more physical parameters (essentially the traditional sensor weve been discussing), A computational element that analyzes the measurements made by the sensing element, and A communication interface to the outside world that allows the device to exchange information with other components in a larger system. Its the last two elements that really distinguish intelligent sensors from their more common standard sensor relatives because they provide the abilities to turn data directly into information, to use that information locally, and to communicate it to other elements in the system. 2.3 Types of Intelligent Sensors Intelligent sensors are chosen depending on the object, application, precision system, environment of use and cost etc. In such cases consideration must be given as to what is an appropriate evaluation standard. This question involves a multi-dimensional criterion and is usually very difficult. The evaluation standard directly reflects the sense of value itself applied in the design and manufacture of the target system. This must therefore be firmly settled at the system design stage. In sensor selection, the first matter to be considered is determination of the subject of measurement. The second matter to be decided on is the required precision and dynamic range. The third is ease of use, cost, delivery time etc., and ease of maintenance in actual use and compatibility with other sensors in the system. The type of sensor should be matched to such requirements at the design stage. Sensors are usually classified by the subject of measurement and the principle of sensing action. 2.3.1 Classification Based on Type of Input In this, the sensor is classified in accordance with the physical phenomenon that is needed to be detected and the subject of measurement. Some of the examples include voltage, current, displacement and pressure. A list of sensors and their categories are mentioned in the following table. Category Type Dynamic Quantity Flow rate, Pressure, force, tension Speed, acceleration Sound, vibration Distortion, direction proximity Optical Quantities Light (infra red, visible light or radiation) Electromagnetic Quantities Current, voltage, frequency, phase, vibration, magnetism Quantity of Energy or Heat Temperature, humidity, dew point Chemical Quantities Analytic sensors, gas, odour, concentration, pH, ions Sensory Quantities or Biological Quantities Touch, vision, smell Table 2.3.1: Sensed items Classified in accordance with subject of measurement. 2.3.2 Classification Based on Type of Output In an intelligent sensor, it is often necessary to process in an integrated manner the information from several sensors or from a single sensor over a given time range. A computer of appropriate level is employed for such purposes in practically y all cases. For coupling to the computer when constructing an intelligent sensor system, a method with a large degree of freedom is therefore appropriate. It is also necessary to pay careful attention to the type of physical quantity carrying the output information to the sensor, and to the information description format of this physical quantity or dynamic quantity, and for the description format an analog, digital or encoded method etc., might be used. Although any physical quantities could be used as output signal, electrical quantities such as voltage are more convenient for data input to a computer. The format of the output signal can be analog or digital. For convenience in data input to the computer, it is preferable if the output signal of the sensor itself is in the form of a digital electrical signal. In such cases, a suitable means of signal conversion must be provided to input the data from the sensor to the computer 2.3.3 Classification Based on Accuracy When a sensor system is constructed, the accuracy of the sensors employed is a critical factor. Usually sensor accuracy is expressed as the minimum detectable quantity. This is determined by the sensitivity of the sensor and the internally generated noise of the sensor itself. Higher sensitivity and lower internal noise level imply greater accuracy. Generally for commercially available sensors the cost of the sensor is determined by the accuracy which it is required to have. If no commercial sensor can be found with the necessary accuracy, a custom product must be used, which will increase the costs. For ordinary applications an accuracy of about 0.1% is sufficient. Such sensors can easily be selected from commercially available models. Dynamic range (full scale deflection/minimum detectable quantity) has practically the same meaning as accuracy, and is expressed in decibel units. For example a dynamic range of 60dB indicates that the full scale deflection is 103 times the minimum detectable quantity. That is, a dynamic range of 60dB is equivalent to 0.1% accuracy. In conventional sensors, linearity of output was regarded as quite important. However, in intelligent sensor technology the final stage is normally data processing by computer, so output linearity is not a particular problem. Any sensor providing a reproducible relationship of input and output signal can be used in an intelligent sensor system. Chapter 3 3.1 Sensor selection The function of a sensor is to receive some action from a single phenomenon of the subject of measurement and to convert this to another physical phenomenon that can be more easily handled. The phenomenon constituting the subject of measurement is called the input signal, and the phenomenon after conversion is called the output signal. The ratio of the output signal to the input signal is called the transmittance or gain. Since the first function of a sensor is to convert changes in the subject of measurement to a physical phenomenon that can be more easily handled, i.e. its function consists in primary conversion, its conversion efficiency, or the degree of difficulty in delivering the output signal to the transducer constituting the next stage is of secondary importance The first point to which attention must be paid in sensor selection is to preserve as far as possible the information of the input signal. This is equivalent to preventing lowering of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). For example, if the SNR of the input signal is 60 dB, a sensor of dynamic range less than 60 dB should not be used. In order to detect changes in the quantity being measured as faithfully as possible, a sensor is required to have the following properties. Non-interference. This means that its output should not be changed by factors other than changes in the subject of measurement. Conversion satisfying this condition is called direct measurement. Conversion wherein the measurement quantity is found by calculation from output signals determined under the influence of several input signals is called indirect measurement. High sensitivity. The amount of change of the output signal that is produced by a change of unit amount of the input quantity being measured, i.e. the gain, should be as large as possible. Small measurement pressure. This means that the sensor should not disturb the physical conditions of the subject of measurement. From this point of view, modulation conversion offers more freedom than direct-acting conversion. High speed. The sensor should have sufficiently high speed of reaction to track the maximum anticipated rate of variation of the measured quantity. Low noise. The noise generated by the sensor itself should be as little as possible. Robustness. The output signal must be at least more robust than the quantity being measured, and be easier to handle. Robustness means resistance to environmental changes and/or noise. In general, phenomena of large energy are more resistant to external disturbance such as noise than are phenomena of smaller energy, they are easier to handle, and so have better robustness. If a sensor can be obtained that satisfies all these conditions, there is no problem. However, in practice, one can scarcely expect to obtain a sensor satisfying all these conditions. In such cases, it is necessary to combine the sensor with a suitable compensation mechanism, or to compensate the transducer of the secondary converter. Progress in IC manufacturing technology has made it possible to integrate various sensor functions. With the progressive shift from mainframes to minicomputers and hence to microcomputers, control systems have changed from centralized processing systems to distributed processing systems. Sensor technology has also benefited from such progress in IC manufacturing technology, with the result that systems whereby information from several sensors is combined and processed have changed from centralized systems to dispersed systems. Specifically, attempts are being made to use silicon-integrated sensors in a role combining primary data processing and input in systems that measure and process two-dimensional information such as picture information. This is a natural application of silicon precision working technology and digital circuit technology, which have been greatly advanced by introduction of VLSI manufacturing technology. Three-dimensional integrated circuits for recognizing letter patterns and odour sensors, etc., are examples of this. Such sensor systems can be called perfectly intelligent sensors in that they themselves have a certain data processing capability. It is characteristic of such sensors to combine several sensor inputs and to include a microprocessor that performs data processing. Their output signal is not a simple conversion of the input signal, but rather an abstract quantity obtained by some reorganization and combination of input signals from several sensors. This type of signal conversion is now often performed by a distributed processing mechanism, in which microprocessors are used to carry out the data processing that was previously performed by a centralized computer system having a large number of interfaces to individual sensors. However, the miniaturization obtained by application of integrated circuit techniques brings about an increase in the flexibility of coupling between elements. This has a substantial effect. Sensors of this type constitute a new technology that is at present being researched and developed. Although further progress can be expected, the overall picture cannot be predicted at the present time. Technically, practically free combinations of sensors can be implemented with the object of so-called indirect measurement, in which the signals from several individual sensors that were conventionally present are collected and used as the basis for a new output signal. In many aspects, new ideas are required concerning determination of the object of measurement, i.e. which measured quantities are to be selected, determination of the individual functions to achieve this, and the construction of the framework to organize these as a system. 3.2 Structure of an Intelligent Sensor The rapidity of development in microelectronics has had a profound effect on the whole of instrumentation science, and it has blurred some of the conceptual boundaries which once seemed so firm. In the present context the boundary between sensors and instruments is particularly uncertain. Processes which were once confined to a large electronic instrument are now available within the housing of a compact sensor, and it is some of these processes which we discuss later in this chapter. An instrument in our context is a system which is designed primarily to act as a free standing device for performing a particular set of measurements; the provision of communications facilities is of secondary importance. A sensor is a system which is designed primarily to serve a host system and without its communication channel it cannot serve its purpose. Nevertheless, the structures and processes used within either device, be they hardware or software, are similar. The range of disciplines which arc brought together in intelligent sensor system design is considerable, and the designer of such systems has to become something of a polymath. This was one of the problems in the early days of computer-aided measurement and there was some resistance from the backwoodsmen who practiced the art of measurement. 3.2.1 Elements of Intelligent Sensors The intelligent sensor is an example of a system, and in it we can identify a number of sub-systems whose functions are clearly distinguished from each other. The principal sub-systems within an intelligent sensor are: A primary sensing element Excitation Control Amplification (Possibly variable gain) Analogue filtering Data conversion Compensation Digital Information Processing Digital Communication Processing The figure illustrates the way in which these sub-systems relate to each other. Some of the realizations of intelligent sensors, particularly the earlier ones, may incorporate only some of these elements. The primary sensing element has an obvious fundamental importance. It is more than simply the familiar traditional sensor incorporated into a more up-to-date system. Not only are new materials and mechanisms becoming available for exploitation, but some of those that have been long known yet discarded because of various difficulties of behaviour may now be reconsidered in the light of the presence of intelligence to cope with these difficul ­ties. Excitation control can take a variety of forms depending on the circumstances. Some sensors, such as the thermocouple, convert energy directly from one form to another without the need for additional excitation. Others may require fairly elaborate forms of supply. It may be alternating or pulsed for subsequent coherent or phase-sensitive detection. In some circumstances it may be necessary to provide extremely stable supplies to the sensing element, while in others it may be necessary for those supplies to form part of a control loop to maintain the operating condition of the clement at some desired optimum. While this aspect may not be thought fundamental to intelligent sensors there is a largely unexplored range of possibilities for combining it with digital processing to produce novel instrumentation techniques. Amplification of the electrical output of the primary sensing element is almost invariably a requirement. This can pose design problems where high gain is needed. Noise is a particular hazard, and a circumstance unique to the intelligent form of sensor is the presence of digital buses carrying signals with sharp transitions. For this reason circuit layout is a particularly important part of the design process. Analogue filtering is required at minimum to obviate aliasing effects in the conversion stage, but it is also attractive where digital filtering would lake up too much of the real-time processing power available. Data conversion is the stage of transition between the continuous real world and the discrete internal world of the digital processor. It is important to bear in mind that the process of analogue to digital conversion is a non-linear one and represents a potentially gross distortion of the incoming information. It is important, however, for the intelligent sensor designer always to remember that this corruption is present, and in certain circumstances it can assume dominating importance. Such circumstances would include the case where the conversion process is part of a control loop or where some sort of auto-ranging, overt or covert, is built in to the operational program. Compensation is an inevitable part of the intelligent sensor. The operating point of the sensors may change due to various reasons. One of them is temperature. So an intelligent sensor must have an inbuilt compensation setup to bring the operating point back to its standard set stage. Information processing is, of course, unique to the intelligent form of sensor. There is some overlap between compensation and information processing, but there are also significant areas on independence. An important aspect is the condensation of information, which is necessary to preserve the two most precious resources of the industrial measurement system, the information bus and the central processor. A prime example of data condensa ­tion occurs in the Doppler velocimctcr in which a substantial quantity of informa ­tion is reduced to a single number representing the velocity. Sensor compensation will in general require the processi